The National Water Resources Institute (Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidraulicos, INRH, part of the Ministry of Construction) is responsible for overseeing, implementing, and regulating the government’s water resource initiatives. Along with managing water resources, INRH sets standards and monitors activities related to water supply and sanitation. Additionally, INRH manages 241 dams and operates 175 small hydropower plants, with a combined installed capacity of 14 MW.

One cannot ignore the history of Albear Aqueduct of Havana: The Albear Aqueduct, built between 1858-1893 in Havana, is a National Monument and a renowned engineering feat. Created to address Havana’s severe water shortages, it draws from the Vento springs, crossing the Almendares River via a tunnel, and flows through a complex system to serve the city. At a time when existing infrastructure like the Royal Ditch and Fernando VII Aqueduct failed to meet the needs of Havana’s 100,000 residents, Colonel Francisco de Albear designed this aqueduct to ensure a reliable water supply. Although Albear passed away before its completion, the aqueduct won a Gold Medal at the 1878 Paris Universal Exhibition and was later named one of Cuba’s Seven Wonders of Civil Engineering. In 2023, it joined UNESCO’s Global Network of Water Museums as the Caribbean’s first member. More than 130 years later, it still supplies water to Havana by gravity alone, reflecting Albear’s mastery in ecological, aesthetic, and hygienic design.

The public-private partnership (PPP) for Havana’s water supply, initiated in 2000, brought together the Cuban government, Aguas de Barcelona (Agbar), and the Grupo Martinon. This collaboration was formed to manage the water, sewer, and stormwater systems in 12 of Havana’s 15 municipalities under a 25-year concession.

The initial capital investment for Aguas de la Habana, the joint company, was $8 million. Notably, Agbar facilitated an additional $24.7 million through loans for various projects, including the rehabilitation of Havana’s Albear aqueduct, which is responsible for 12% of the Havana’s water supply. The partnership between Aguas de la Habana and Aguas de Barcelona (Agbar) operates under the oversight of the Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidraulicos. 

INRH’s role in this partnership includes oversight of the regulatory framework and policies governing the water sector, ensuring that Aguas de la Habana operates within the national guidelines, while Aguas de la Habana manages the day-to-day operations and service delivery. This allows INRH to focus on long-term water resource sustainability while the mixed enterprise handles localized service improvements​. Despite the investments, the system faces significant inefficiencies due to the old infrastructures. Only half of the 330 million cubic meters of water pumped annually actually reaches consumers due to leakages, which are estimated to result in around 50% non-revenue water, higher than the regional average. The significant water loss in Havana, where nearly 50% of the water pumped never reaches the end users due to infrastructure leaks, directly influences the unequal pricing system. This inefficiency forces the water utility, Aguas de la Habana, to seek revenue through higher charges for non-local users, such as tourists and embassies, who are charged $1 per cubic meter, compared to the 1 peso per cubic meter rate for local residents. However, this pricing disparity leads to social inequities, where tourists enjoy better service in some areas while locals, despite the lower rate, face inconsistent water access and supply interruptions.

The Cuban government, through INRH, benefits from the partnership by gaining access to foreign investment and expertise without having to fully privatize a key resource. Furthermore, the partnership helps the Cuban government by improving water access and services for some residents, reducing the reliance on tanker trucks, and mitigating Havana’s water shortages​. This generates political goodwill by providing a necessary service, even if the system is still plagued by inefficiencies. Agbar profits directly from the revenues generated through water services in Havana. The dual pricing system, where tourists are charged a higher rate of $1 per cubic meter compared to 1 peso for locals, allows Agbar to secure a reliable revenue stream from high-paying entities such as embassies, hotels, and tourists. Additionally, by operating in Havana, Agbar strengthens its global presence in water management, boosting its portfolio and reputation as a key player in international water service markets​.

Despite its relative water abundance, Havana faces drought-related water shortages due to a combination of climatic factors, aging infrastructure, and mismanagement. Irregular rainfall patterns and extended dry seasons are common in the Caribbean, which reduces the natural replenishment of water sources like aquifers and reservoirs. This is compounded by Havana’s outdated water distribution system, where nearly 50% of the water is lost due to leaks. Additionally, over-extraction of groundwater has led to saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources, further degrading the water quality. Population growth and urbanization add pressure to the already strained system, while inefficient management practices limit the city’s ability to capture and store water effectively during times of plenty, leaving Havana vulnerable during periods of drought.

• In July 2015, President Raul Castro issued a call for nationwide water rationing due to severe drought conditions attributed to the El Niño phenomenon. Later that year, in November 2015, Cuban authorities unveiled a comprehensive national program aimed at mitigating the adverse impacts of drought. This initiative involved substantial investments and the implementation of various measures to conserve water resources. By April 2016, the Instituto Nacional de¹ Recursos Hidraúlicos (INRH) reported that water levels in reservoirs in Eastern Cuba had reached their lowest point in a decade. Additionally, in the western Artemisa Province near Havana, fourteen reservoirs also exhibited critically low water levels. As a result of these conditions, approximately 120,000 residents in Havana relied on water tanker trucks to meet their water needs.
• Another water supply challenge surfaced in 2000 when approximately 90,000 Havana residents had to rely on water tanker trucks because the outdated water distribution system couldn’t adequately provide them with water. Subsequent repairs to the system reduced this reliance, at least until the recurrence of water shortages during the 2015-2016 drought.
• A notable water scarcity incident occurred in 2002 in Santiago de Cuba, located in the eastern part of the island. In this instance, residents endured up to 20 days without access to tap water. The unreliability of water chlorination, partially due to a shortage of chlorine, resulted in residents receiving unsafe drinking water. Consequently, people had to store water in their homes, which elevated the risk of contamination. Some households resorted to using sand filters to treat their water.

As previously, mentioned In Havana, residential water tariffs are set at a fixed rate of $1 Cuban peso (equivalent to USD $0.04 year 2023) per cubic meter, making it one of the lowest water tariffs in Latin America. However, hotels and embassies are billed at a significantly higher rate of $1 Cuban convertible peso (USD $1) per cubic meter. It’s worth noting that until 1997, there was no water tariff in place at all. The existing infrastructure in Havana cannot support round-the-clock water delivery to households. The city’s water network stretches over 3600 kilometers, with approximately 1800 kilometers currently in a state of disrepair. The most aged and outdated infrastructure is concentrated in the central parts of Havana, including the vicinity of Old Havana. Consequently, residents receive water on a predetermined schedule. In practical terms, this means that certain areas receive water for just 4 hours each day, while others have access for 12 hours, and some areas receive water on alternate days.  There are even areas where the water cycle spans an even longer duration (ibid). The duration of each water cycle for a specific zone is determined in advance, taking into consideration the condition of the water infrastructure in that particular area.

The responsibility for ensuring that residents in Old Havana receive water within or near their residences falls upon the 4000 technicians and engineers employed by Aguas de la Habana. These professionals manually operate water valves and keys to continually manage the flow of water throughout the city, as there is no automated system for this purpose. When a water key is opened for a particular zone, water begins to flow into the buildings in that vicinity. Each building typically features a shared underground cistern where the water accumulates until the next cycle. It is from these cisterns that water is drawn whenever someone opens a tap within their residence. Initially, the water passes through an overhead water tank, often colored blue but occasionally black, which is situated on the rooftop. All buildings in Havana are equipped with multiple primary tanks on their roofs, and it is these tanks that distribute water among the individual households within the building.

Through conversations with ordinary residents, most of whom have spent their entire lives in Old Havana, I unexpectedly uncovered a complex network of DIY water practices. This system, however, enjoys universal acceptance within the city through unspoken and informal agreements, all in the interest of ensuring access to water for everyone:

I witnessed several water trucks, known as pipas, which supply water in case of pipeline breaks, insufficient pressure, or when functional plumbing is absent. I observed the extensive bureaucracy and the long waits the drivers endured to fill their tanks.

I also joined horse-drawn carriages that transport water throughout the city. I witnessed the resourcefulness of Cubans as they tried to repair their water hoses and pumps using whatever materials were at their disposal.

These examples illustrate how people in Havana are adapting to the challenges posed by climate change and the city’s inefficient water supply systems. While Havana faces unique complexities, its water management is symbolic of the global struggle to provide clean and equitable water access to all. The city has weathered droughts, economic hardships, and outdated infrastructure, yet its residents have adapted and innovated to ensure their water needs are met.

The lessons from Havana extend beyond its shores. They remind us of the critical role that governments, communities, and international cooperation play in addressing water-related challenges. Sustainable and equitable water management is not just a necessity but a right that should be upheld and supported.